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Everyone wants to read about Antony and Cleopatra, especially about Cleopatra, who was not only history’s most famous female ruler but its most glamorous. The Egyptian queen’s love affair with the married Mark Antony, who because of his defeat of the assassins of his patron, and Cleopatra’s onetime lover, Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. had become sole ruler of the Roman East, precipitated not only Antony’s downfall but her own. The brother of Antony’s spurned wife, Octavia, happened to be Caesar’s great-nephew Octavian, later the Emperor Augustus and already in command of the western half of what was already a vast Rome-ruled territory, including the city of Rome itself. It was one or the other, and on Sept. 2, 31 B.C., Octavian handed Antony a humiliating sea defeat at Actium, a harbor town on the western Greek coast whence Antony had considered launching an invasion of Italy. When the battle went south early on, Cleopatra fled to Egypt with her ships, and Antony followed her. T
Cleopatra has become synonymous with the term female pharaoh. Yet she was just the culmination of three millennia of women rulers. Learn about the female kings here…