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All in all, well over 4 million black and Asian men were mobilised into the European and American armies, according to British Library research. Many were conscripted or coerced, particularly in Egypt and the colonies of east and west Africa, according to the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. This could involve threats and even kidnappings. In Egypt alone, it has been suggested by the historian David Killingray that three-quarters of the 327,000 men who served were recruited forcibly. Large numbers of conscripts in Africa were used as part of a human supply chain in “carrier corps”, which took a huge toll that the lack of adequate memorials can make hard to calculate.

Al jizahUnited statesUnited kingdomSierra leoneGold coastWinston churchillDavid killingrayCommonwealth war graves commissionWar graves commissionBritish libraryQueen mary university londonBritish indiaBritish caribbeanBritish west indies regimentSaharan africaCommonwealth war graves