It was a huge empire. That had its origins in asia minor they also means were defined as of islam in four hundred fifty three they subjugated the byzantine empire whose capital constantinople became. During their heyday in the seventeenth century they even laid siege to vienna the Ottoman Empire stretched across three continents from the black sea to the red sea they ruled a considerable mix of peoples and fates but then came the century in which the Ottoman Empire disintegrated its collapse can still be felt in the balkans and. Middle east today its wreckage is still a major concern of modern world politics. Sorry the capital of Bosnia Herzegovina the monuments to the tragic yugoslav was the last conflicts of the Twentieth Century in the heart of europe. For more than three years sorry ever was besieged by serb nationalists who were bent on destroying the exemplary coexistence of orthodox catholic and muslim bosnians. Bosnian civilians were the first victims of this ethnic cleansing. They too were slavs bandt descendants of people who converted to islam when the ottomans conquered the balkans in the fourteenth century. With the wars in yugoslavia in the one nine hundred ninety s. Had reawakened a lot of cliches so there was the idea that somehow for some bizarre reason in this part of europe maybe it was the ottomans who new. People had always hated each other and thats why things had blown up in one thousand nine hundred one and one thousand nine hundred two and if you knew about the history of southeastern europe you would know this was wrong there was no great history of ethnic tension even though there was a history of massively complicated ethnic and confessional coexistence so the task of the historians in the one nine hundred ninety s. Was to combat the stereotype and in combating the stereotype. It was easy to create another stereotype which is the Ottoman Empire had been this wonderfully Peaceful Place in where jews and christians and muslims had sort of loved one another. In the light of the violence and chaos that followed the Ottoman Empire felt like a golden age but in reality it was marked by great social inequality. Limbs were subordinate to muslims they had to pay a special tax werent allowed to carry arms and werent allowed to engage in missionary work. Orthodox christians armenian catholics and jews were members of minutes a word with arabic roots meaning religious Community Every millet had its own clergy responsible not only for religious but also for secular matters thanks to these millets Christians Jews and muslims were able to live side by side without mixing throughout the empire from the balkans to anatolia from the lebanese mountains to the holy land it was an imperfect system but it had its advantages it gave the empire stability for more than four centuries. This order was accepted as long as the identity of the subjugated peoples was based exclusively on their religion. The minute you start getting a political world this system is going to break down and that is what happens in the Nineteenth Century and that is the great conundrum for the empire how to adapt this system of government that sort of functioned in a prepolitical world for political world. This new political world was based on the ideals of the french revolution on the peoples new desire for freedom and independence it shook the foundations of the empire. The greeks were the first to rebel against the ottoman shackles unrest began in eighteen twenty one and it soon resulted in a war of independence. Back in upon a man as a greek sense of identity existed before the start of the Nineteenth Century it was based on the legacy of ancient greece and on the Greek Orthodox religion in particular getting hysterical. After the uprising in greece the Orthodox Christians in the empire saw themselves as one people with a common language and history as a greek nation that wanted an independent state. It was an example for the other minorities in the Ottoman Empire and one that had huge explosive power. The empires enemies were aware of this. Under the pretext of wanting to protect christians who were being oppressed in this muslim empire france Great Britain and russia supported the greek separatists. They all fancied alterman territories in europe and in asia greece was a strategic significance thanks to its Central Location on the mediterranean particularly for russia which wanted to control shipping routes in the mediterranean sea. Theyre prepping mexican army bases we mustnt forget that the foreign powers in the region were rivals in the interests of france Great Britain and russia were frequently in conflict to have these policies were always teaming up against the third greece was the location where these complex played out in particular with regard to the interests of Great Britain the major naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean and the interests of russia which was seeking to establish itself them. You know actual law and story here. In eight hundred twenty nine france britain and russia convened in london to negotiate greeces independence. This independence cut a big hole in the Ottoman Empire. Nice gift almost to get a kick out with the ad this time yet im an empire ruled the end time middle east it was a vast realm of the loss of continental greece and the peloponnese was not particularly significant from a territorial perspective but it had a powerful symbolic in fact was a human relatively it triggered the rebellions that characterized the end time and Nineteenth Century and would lead to the loss of the balkans if they like this up or yes and yet created a huge trauma that still resonates in turkish history. As a matter that after. The spark quickly spread encouraged by russia the serbs and romanians rose up achieving autonomy. They were still part of the Ottoman Empire but they were on their way to independence. How could this type be stopped. In eight hundred thirty nine sounds and abdul majeed initiated a hit or two unseen reform process the tanzim at it promised Freedom Security and legal and fiscal equality for all ottoman subjects muslims a non muslims alike. As if it were still possible to create an ottoman citizen who was attached to the empire. I dont think the imperial bureaucrats were aware of just how far reaching the desire for emancipation was with us and it was the transition from a purely religious to a National Identity of the century religious group became a National Unit thats far off the to National Exit in the languages serbian bulgarian greek armenian on which these faith communities were based accelerate at this nationalisation process set up the places just in western exhaustion. Little by little the ottoman millets were transformed into nations nations whose foundations were religious identity and language the balkans remain shaped by these factors today. In bosnia a slavic people sharing the same slavic language split into opposing nations Orthodox Christians declared themselves to be serbs whereupon muslims demanded their own identity not serbs or ottomans but bosniaks. The rebellion broke out among serbian peasants in rural bosnia eight hundred seventy five it heightened the break between the peoples. The land owning class and tend to be muslim the peasants tend to be orthodox and so a peasant revolt can be read as a class revolt and it can be read as an ethnic revolt if youre a nationalist historian you read the events of eight hundred seventy five in heads of governors a nationalist revolt. When you read the correspondence of the time its both ok that this is a region that suffers from in demick starvation. The climate is very precarious. There is a bad harvest now is that so it is that an ethnic revolt or is it not an ethnic revolt its both at the same time. Christian peasants took up arms all across the balkans irregular ottoman soldiers. Brutally put down the results they committed countless massacres in bulgaria recorded in the western press. Europe took the side of the christians in the Ottoman Empire the turks were painted as being the bad side and were accused of terrible atrocities while no mention was made of what was being done to muslim groups in the balkans. The situation came to a head in eight hundred seventy six the bosnian revolt had become the crisis in the east the ottoman power was faltering. The ruling sultan. Is tamil was overthrown his successor moore and the fifth was considered insane. In august eight hundred seventy six his brother abdul hamid the second came to power. He received the sort of the founder of the dynasty in the arab sultan mosque. He was thirty four years old when he became the thirty fourth ottoman sultan. Sultan abdul hamid who was the last stand when the empire started crumbling as a result of the nationalist efforts particularly in the balkans and under the pressure of the major powers he tried playing a new convert over the gulf coast convert he was seen as a liberal who would give the empire a constitution for this dream had been there for several years and the liberal ottomans believed that this would solve all the empires problems they trusted hed be able to prevent an intervention by the major powers illegal to solve the deficit. Abdulhamid made the liberals dream come true there was to be a constitution and elections a parliament. The equality of all subjects of muslims a non muslims alike was left untouched. Did he believe he could stem the nationalist tide in the balkans and the call of the european powers for reforms this way. His illusions were short lived in april eight hundred seventy seven russia declared war. Lived all over the big problem of the Ottoman Empire was russia which wanted to break it to. Russia so itself as a protector of the slavs particularly the balkan war. There was a sizeable turn Slavic Movement that had a big influence on the russian leadership does so yes good for example dreamed of constantinople being conquered so it could become. The city of zion of those. Yes it was a major confrontation. Christianity versus islam and penned slavic ism versus the Ottoman Empire. A lot was at stake. You know also. The turks were defeated in just a few weeks russia plan to break up the empire but neither france nor britain nor austria hungary wanted to allow russia to get all the spoils for itself. I mean june eight hundred Seventy Eight the major european powers convened at a congress in berlin the ottomans were represented too as observers they were allowed no say in the negotiations. The big hagel began. As the victorious power russia claimed territories in. Caucasus its a chief the formation of a new christian state dog area. It was officially part of the Ottoman Empire but in reality russia had to say that remaining in montenegro and serbia finally achieved independence. Because the and herzegovina was austriahungary as counterweight to the russian influence in the balkans abdulhamid empire lost more than two hundred thousand square kilometers in europe. The real story of the whole epoch its not only the story of the loss of ottoman territory but is therefore the story of the loss of homes of autumn and muslims and its the story of the displacement of millions of people and often very very violent displacement and when to people start thinking about refugees as an International Problem and what we can see is that the crisis of eight hundred seventy six to Seventy Eight maybe together with the early expansion of the russian empire around the black sea which would also created hundreds of thousands of muslim refugees this is the beginning of the modern age of the refugee. After the war and the humiliation in berlin abdulhamid liberal into mexico was over he got rid of the constitution of eight hundred seventy six and now ruled alone as a despot albeit an unlighted one Sultan Abdul Hamid still wanted to save the empire. He wanted to add the achievements of the west to oriental civilization he sent under his reign the army and ministration the judicial system trade and infrastructure all modernized. Education was prioritized military academies and medical and legal faculties were established throughout the empire. In eighteen eighty eight passengers enjoyed their first journey on the Orient Express stand will to paris in just three days travel is flooded in and with them their western fashions and influences. The storm is down to constantinople was a magical and in the second half of the Nineteenth Century a completely modern city and. Its rain was despite oppression and autocracy book for the people of his demo you can see thats around the pitter palace hotel sorry about hot stayed there a couple of times pleased to see the new social class fall and move in. The. Middle class dressed in suits and sundays as a product of this maternity it comprised old those who were benefiting from the survival of the ana through it all. The europeans were also interested in the continued existence of the Ottoman Empire france and Great Britain in particular had invested in trade in Railway Companies and in mines a kind of central bank was established when the Imperial Ottoman Bank was set up with french and british capital. A leading position that was further enhanced by the. Capitulation system treaties dating from the sixteenth century that gave the europeans significant privileges such as the freedom to trade and Tax Exemptions in the Ottoman Empire. In the Nineteenth Century the special rights were granted to all western powers which made them untouchable. It was a comprehensive chanter which gave all foreign nationals the ront to trade freely without informing the ottoman or thora ts thanks to the capitulation was asking to repay souls that. They enjoyed immunity and extraterritoriality almost a colonial privilege in fact privy to their quest for good yet. These capitulations are in violation of our rights right Sultan Abdul Hamid but what could he do his scope for action was limited when he came to power the state was bankrupt and unable to services dents on the french and british markets. In one thousand nine hundred one his power was further curtailed by the formation of a special administration for state debts said this consortium that the right to lay its hands on all state income as was necessary to keep the empire solvent and to guarantee the repayment of debts who was an encroachment on the empires fiscal sovereignty didnt our pm. Read it. Seeking that there was a lot of complaining and bitterness. And yet broken belittled the bottom line was that the already and wasnt able to modernize following the western example without outside stimulus with result all you know you know if this resulted in an inferiority complex that still tangible in turkey today you know you think you dont go. In this race mix of love and hate for the west or looks down on man move the war to the new we love it we want to be like it to get rid of a roman societal model upon the dead today are. The facts. For a long time france and britain were the guarantors of stability in the Ottoman Empire towards the end of the Nineteenth Century however their priorities changed european imperialism had reached its climax it needed new resources and new markets after conquering ottoman algeria france invaded tunisia in one thousand nine hundred one. The following year Great Britain occupied egypt the suez canal brought it closer to its colonial empire in india the ottomans saw it as a betrayal before one power that had hit the two stood on the sidelines it was an opportunity to join the conversation. In eight hundred eighty nine Kaiser Wilhelm the second went to istanbul for a state visit where he was received with great pomp and circumstance beisel time abdulhamid. As a symbol of their New Friendship the two rulers hatched plans for a new railway line. It was to run from burlington to baghdad to mesopotamia to the persian gulf and its oil fields on the doorstep of the british area of influence. The kaiser later engaged in further symbolic actions during a trip to the holy land in damascus he officially declared himself a friend and protector of the muslim peoples. He said not so overweight the germans knew how to benefit from the fact that they were new on this stage as a power worker that had never acted against ottoman interests before they had never participated in the exploitation of ottoman resources. In fact and this is often forgotten they came out in favor of muslims who resort to the yemenis are not. A clever political move at a time when Sultan Abdulhamid was putting islam center stage politically and strategically. The ottomans are very concerned that the experience of the balkans the development of a distinct National Identity based religion history not be replicated in the arab world balkanization meant the partition of the secession of whole territories of which