World. Also a total guarantee. Other phrases that have a total quality are the terms Unconditional Surrender and implying to had to be a total victory and no armistice. But i want to talk about a specific trope in the language of total war and that is the trope of revenge. Revenge, by its very nature is a sort of ratchet. Somebody commits a wrong against you. You seek revenge. They retaliate. They interpret that as a wrong. They come back. And so on and so forth. The momentum of the language of total war is fed on words by the rhetoric and the ideas of revenge. When hitler talks about the destruction of the jews, key phrases it in the language of the revenge. He blames them, a loosely wrongly, for the defeat of the german luftwaffe in world war i, the rise of bolshevism, for starting world war ii. \ weve also seen this language in American Fighting the japanese in the pacific. Im going to talk little bit today about the european theater of operation on both axis and allied side and the wave to seek revenge drove the war on in the years we have reached, which are approximately 1942, 1943. I wanted to begin by looking at the check was a voc check was a voc in czechoslovakian government in exile. Now, i am going to stop saying czechoslovakian and start saying czech. I know some of these will not be the correct ethnicity. I do not mean to commit offense. You remember that the germans took the german ethnic bits of czechoslovakia and the government headed into exile became one of the earliest governments in exile to establish themselves in london. So they would not be swept over western europe. Then, the head of the czech government, depicted there with the scientist, looking at dictatorship in the modern world. The photograph indicates the problems he is facing in his career. The czechs in exile owed some advantages in their position. They were one of the earliest countries occupied by the germans. They were therefore an early valuable source of intelligence from nazi occupied countries in eastern europe. There will there were of course czech guerillas. They could pass that on to churchill felt government in london providing viable information about German Military resources to the British Government. Also the soviet government, sending them viable information as well. Yes, question . [indiscernible] i should have written it on the board. He is found in london from 1939 onwards. Now, the czech underground has a steady flow of information to the west from the exile in london. They said they could get useful information about german reserve locations. They said they could sabotage german industries. Its always hard to know when youre are doing the history of secret activities, to want to rely on these kinds of documents because of course people who say they are in the position to do these valuable things hope that will make them indispensable. You always have to guard this with a degree of skepticism. Nevertheless that is why there are in a particular valuable position for the allies during the war. After the german invasion of the soviet union in summer 1941, operation barbarossa, the soviets also begin to rely on czech connections or intelligence about where to find germans and they begin to funnel materiel, material assistance, to the czech resistance and that gave them an advantage against their german occupiers. Meanwhile in addition to the czech Government Index island britain, there were maybe 5000 czech soldiers who had been evacuated from france with the British Expeditionary force in 1940 during the fall of france. There were lots of soldiers sitting around britain with not much to do and they began to be trained with members of the british several operations executives or soe which is an outfit established by the British Government to engage in espionage, sabotage, and other secretive activities in occupied europe. Naturally, one of the particular targets of interest for these czechs would have been the german occupiers object was a voc you czechoslovakia, including this man, called the butcher of frog. He was in charge of what they variously called the jewish problem, the jewish question and finally the final solution. He was as possible for developing and if limiting a plan for concentrating deporting, and executing the Jewish Populations in eastern europe. Part of his rise to preeminence was owed to his efficiency in establishing himself as what we have called in typically euphemistic fashion the protector all union moravia part of occupied czechoslovakia. Bless you. In keeping with nazi ideology he believed that czechs had no right to be in nazioccupied territory. He devised a system to divide them into those who were socially acceptable, politically on next unacceptable, and those who could be used for toleration. More immediately he was forced to take up the question of the active czech resistance through nazi occupation. So, he had to arrest and execute 400 or so czech partisans or those identified as aiding the czech partisans as the protector of bohemia and moravia improv. That is how he got the name butcher of prague. He was in office in property was busy detaining, deporting, and executing people an effort to show that he has a strong hands and control of what is going on in occupied czechoslovakia engaging ultimately in a show trial of the remaining czechoslovakian prime minister. He also began to deport hundreds of thousands of jews. And in the beginning, they were deported from germany as well. He exhibited the quality of ruthlessness putting down the resistance. He acquired the nickname, as i said, the butcher of problem. He was able to apprise other parts of the german bureaucracy about the means of carrying out the final solution, what they described as the jewish problem. But were not really going there yet because we are interested in his relationship to the czech government in exile in britain who decided that since he had been so successful at thwarting the activities of the resistance in czechoslovakia, that he should be targeted for a reprisal assassination. This led to what came to be known as operation anthropoid. Churchill reviewing a group of the czechs found in britain trained by the british set special operation executive. The government in london persuaded the British Government to go along with their plan to assassinate him. They chose two of the soetrained exile troops in 1941, part of the group to be parachuted from a bomber into occupied czechoslovakia to make their way, armed with guns and explosives into prod, to praugague to assassinate him as a reprisal for what he had done to the czechs. They are parachuted in czechoslovakia. One immediately turns and subs will he breaks his ankle. They are very lucky to be rescued. You didnt advise himself as part of the resistance and they are taken to a safe place. They had with them a gun that is a british Soldier Holding it there. A very small, lightweight automatic weapon. They are capable of firing 500 rounds per minute. Not very accurate. Quite lethal at close range. They also especially designed bombs that the british soe help them develop. There are antitank weapons. They were sent off on their mission into prague and for six weeks nobody heard from them. They were making their way through nazioccupied prague. They took advantage of the local resistance without letting on to what they were up to because they were afraid, probably correctly, if they told the local resistance what they were therefore, they would lose all of that. After all the butcher of prague was, you know, a butcher. Kind of ruthless and someone you did not want to offend by trying to kill him. So, they feared the czech resistance would not help them if they knew precisely what they were there to do. It took some weeks before they were out of czechoslovakia. Ultimately they developed a plan which they carried out on may 27, 1942. On a bright, warm day they waylaid heidrick in his normal commute to work at a turn in the road shown on the slide next to the tram. Heidrick followed a regular routine. At about 10 30 he got into his car with his driver, drove to work. It was a bright, warm day. Windows open. The soetrained czech parachutists bicycled to the spot where they decided to ambush hydrics his vehicle carrying the sten gun. They assembled be sten gun blind in the briefcase as they had been taught by the soe so they could do it without looking at it so someone nearby would not notice and say what are you doing with that small, but lethal machine gun . [laughter] then they whipped out the sten gun, pulled the trigger, and it jammed. As for julie, this often happens with them. They were not the most reliable weaponry ever used by british paratroopers in the war. However, they were also armed with these little bombs antitank weapons. They had a second shot. When they failed to shoot heidrick, he stepped out of the mercedes, pulled his pistol, intending to shoot the wouldbe assassins. Of course, the other czech blows up a lot of the back parts of the car. The guy with the gun went and hid behind a telegraph pole because he did not have working weaponry. Heidrick hid behind the tram. The other assassin got on his bicycle and started to escape. Heidrick was about to shoot the other one and then he collapsed holding his side, because it turned out that the explosion had driven some of the upholstery from the seat of the car into his side, and as it would turn out, into his clean. He was very badly wounded. The guy who was hiding done the telegraph pole was able to run away, chased by hydrics aid. He ran past the guy who was chasing him and was able to elude his chasers. Heidrick had to be rushed to a hospital where they shot him up with morphing, gave him multiple transfusions, but ultimately were unable to save him. His wounds became septic and he died two days later, june 2. Now, as you might imagine, the germans did not take this well. The gestapo ultimately were able to track down the parachutists because they were betrayed by one of their fellows who received a large sum from the germans exchange for giving their whereabouts. The czech parachutists were holed up with a number of allies in a prague church. They were surrounded by the secret police. There was a gun battle that went on for hours and hours and hours area but ultimately, the czech parachutists decided they should shoot themselves rather than be taken captive. Those who helped them in czechoslovakia and in britain. Best by doing this, they deprived the gestapo of any proof that the british had a hand in the assassination and let it to them to [dramatic music] [man speaking in german] that was dramatic. His death was turned into a propaganda film by the nazis as you might imagine. Joseph goebbels, the of the propaganda agency, stage a funeral to this great martyr to the third reich. A lot of people who paid tribute to him as a hero were people who detested him or feared him. This highly efficient, totally ruthless bureaucrat was a student at politics, was terrifying personally and probably was also a little nuts. Infamously, he came home drunk one night, saw himself reflected in a mirror, pulled out his pistol fired two shots, and said i finally got you, you bastard. But now he could be turned into a saint. They could make a death mask. Send it down to the ss training school. Here is our sainted Reinhardt Heidrick. Himmler eulogized him as an ideal nazi hitler describing them as one of the bitterest foes of the right. The site became a shrine. The whole thing was stagemanaged. Remember, the enthusiasm for spectacle . The murder became the occasion for one of these and a very effective one of these propaganda efforts. But that was only the beginning. Then the german high command had to decide how to carry out its own revenge even though it did not really know who was responsible for the murder of their now sainted Reinhardt Heidrick. The first thing they did was to accelerate heidricks own plan. The final solution. They built more death camps. They sent more boxcars full of jewss to the death camps. Beginning with some 16,000 from czechoslovakia. You will remember heidrick was responsible for this in the first place. This was only an acceleration of programs he put into effect before his death. Something more would have to happen. As it turned out on the body of one of the czech parachutists they discovered a document from the village. They did not know anything about this village, but they assumed it was somehow connected to the assassins who had got heidrick ultimately. So, a little over the week a week after the death of heidrick they cordoned off the village they herded together all of the men, defined as males over 15 years old and shot them 10 at a time, ewing a jewish work detail for the various bodies. The children they catalogued to determine those who were racially unacceptable, who were killed and those who were racially acceptable were placed into the care of families to be brought up. They destroyed completely the village and of liberated all traces of its descendents. Ultimately 16 of the children were found after the war, but that was it. They burned the houses, the village. They opened up the ruins until there was nothing left. They determined they for some responsible he for the death of Reinhardt Heidrick. That act of revenge, of course, became the occasion for another revenge in reprisal for czechs in london. Here, you see a visit to stokeontrent england whoops. Well, anyway. Stoke was home to a number of miners. The village was a mining town. There was solidarity between the people of stoke and the people of licdice. He went there to do fundraising. You see the poster there. It said lidice shall live. Of course, he did not want to admit his role in the assassination of Reinhardt Heidrick and neither did the British Government admit because they did not want to be responsible for the death of so many czechs and jews. Nevertheless they were able to take advantage of the cycle of revenge to foment the campaign of reprisals against the germans. Most did not need these extra motives, as you can probably understand because as you will number, the germans had been busily bombing british cities since early in the war. There is st. Pauls cathedral. There is some of the wreckage being cleared in front of it. You will remember a lot of the loose rock that had to be carried away east to affect the innovation of the soviet union. The bombing of british cities and killing of british civilians was a core part of german strategy and that occasioned a spirit of revenge and the british people. Understandably. They were determined that as soon as they could recover themselves and get their own plans in place they would carry out a Similar Campaign of destruction of german cities, so soon as they could reach them. The architect of that British Campaign was this man, arthur harris, are of the raf, better known as bomber. Bomber harris is depicted at his desk, which was located in high wycombe, which is, i dont know, 40, 45 miles outside london. Not directly underneath where the bombs would be. Hidden. Close enough to direct the campaign of reprisals. He came to the head of Bomber Command in the spring or late winter of 1942. As the american case, people who believed in air power in britain had to win an argument. They had to win an argument for resources. They had to compete with the army and the navy. They had to persuade politicians that a campaign of bombings by the air would be expensive in terms of machinery, and of course explosives, and not least, trained highlights. It would also be trained pilots. It would also be a way to bring the war to a status rectory conclusion without too much loss of life on the western front during the war. It would also a properly parallel reprisals against the germans for their Bombing Campaign in britain. One of the problems that the advocates of a Bombing Campaign in canada early in the war was bombing was not terribly accurate. A study carried out by the real air force and fall of 1941 concluded that only a third of bombers were able to come close to their target, defining close as within five miles. Which is not that close. Those are the problem that many of the targets they wished to hit, whether in germany or occupied europe, were much further away than the smaller airplanes with fighters could reach. So, bombers would have to travel much of their way without fighter escort to bomb deep inside germany. That meant they would be unprotected for much of their journey. This decision on the part of the irs raf to try night bombing. Because after all at night it is harder to see the bombers. Also ignite it is harder for the bombers to see their targets. But on the other hand, if you were motivated by reprisal in revenge, you dont care that much. As long as you get near enough you might be all right. Now they did expand it with a variety of guidance systems including the use of radio beams to try to identify the targets but none were sufficiently longrange, successful enough really to characterize the raf bombing effort, which is largely characterized by using the same mix of incendiaries and high explosives that we have talked to talked about all the way back to the spanishamerican war. The early Bombing Campaigns in 1942, a bit of a rocky start in night bombing. Some of these cities are shown, identified in red on the map. 1942. These cities had factories in them, but they were hardly know cities that did not have some kind of factory in a total war. When this effort did not work so well, they hit two other cities as well. Again, if you can hit the wrong city, were not really talking about precision targeting. The british had better luck at their efforts here, just south of the danish border in march 1942. Rather than try anything complicated like using radio beam guidance systems, they took their visual cues from the spires many european cities have Church Spires and the old part of town. It is something you can see easily from the air. If you can home in on that you know youre hitting the city. You do not know what factory are building your hitting. They were able to take out 60 of the buildings in lubec. If you want to hit something really precise lets say a factory, a single building it would really help to be able to see. In april, the raf tried to carry out a day campaign against a factory in augsburg. You can see that further south in those red targets on the map. Bombing during the day is more precise because the bombers can actually visually see. It also means the fighters and anti