Already had the answers. We already had a lot of answers. If we did not have answers, we knew that it was not appropriate for us to provide an answer, and that is where we had the leave it to the people approach. Leave it to the people who are going to implement this law. That is really the thinking and the process that we went through when we did that from 1967 to 1989. We were still working on that even though we had the framework for nagpra in our National Dialogue report in january of 1989. So this is a story that unfolds over 150 years, a 20 twoyear sweep, and over a twoyour sleep, representing longterm political effort, strategic thinking, coalition building, linked up with a moment of possibility, people on the ground changing social and cultural conditions within American Society in a hole and i think our panelists have taken us through those scales. The quick turnarounds that is the culmination of longterm efforts of people on the ground. It is 10 45 which means it is time for us to take a break. Stretch our legs. The restrooms are out to the lobby. The drinking fountain is near the entrance to the cafe. If you would return at 11 00 when the symposium will resume, and thank both of our patrons, Patricia Zell and suzanne harjo. [applause] [captioning performed by the national captioning institute, which is responsible for its caption content and accuracy. Visit ncicap. Org] [captions Copyright National cable satellite corp. 2014] watching American History tv, 48 hours of American History tv programming every weekend on cspan3. Each week American History tv sits in on a lecture with one of the Nations College professors. You can watch the classes every saturday evening at 8 00 p. M. And midnight eastern. Next, Virginia Commonwealth University instructor Christopher Saladino talks about the competition between the u. S and the soviet union to build advanced Nuclear Weaponry during the cold war. He describes the concept of mutually assured destruction which, he argues, kept the u. S. And the ussr from escalating to open war since both countries possessed enough Nuclear Weapons to obliterate the other. This class is about 50 minutes. Lets recap a little bit. We segued. We talked about national security. We have talked about war, we have talked about this sort of two theater war, the Second World War, how military force is reorganized historically. And we said, ok, the war is organized a certain way, but Technology Changes that. Then we introduce the cold war. We talked about the logic of sort of the start of the cold war. What we call the cause of the cold war. But the real mitigating factor for this is going to be Nuclear Weapons. Today were going to talk about the rise of Nuclear Weapons. We started talking about the rise of Nuclear Weapons on monday when we talked about the original Nuclear Arms Race, between nazi germany and the United States in the 1940s to develop a weapon and we talked about how germany was knocked out of that through circumstances developing their research, and then ultimately germany loses the war. And now there is a war going on in the Pacific Theater and the United States is still trying to produce this weapon. That is where we ended up. Today we will talk about that american weapon and how that became a Nuclear Arms Race that was sort of part and parcel of the cold war. Understand that the united oftes was in a sort competition with nazi germany and whoever else to create a weapon. This was not an effort to create technology and eventually sell it to the u. S. Government. This was not a defense contract scam. This was a very clear Government Program called the Manhattan Project whose design ambition was to create a deployable Nuclear Weapon asap. The United States appropriated a lot of money, a lot of time, a lot of effort, a lot of secrecy to make this so. And it took place all over the United States. It took place the ivy league universities. At stanforde university. It took at the university of michigan. It took place in defense contractor factories. It took place on army bases. All of these things somehow coordinated together. In fact, there was strong managerial leadership in the Manhattan Project. There were two strong leaders. There was the civilian leader, robert oppenheimer, the scientific leader who headed the scientific not just group that was working on it, but how to coordinate their input. Then there was the military leader, general leslie groves, a one star general, the fully a sort of brilliant public manager. Smart guy. But there were money issues, secrecy issues to be dealt with that went beyond the outreach of either of these individuals. And we know historically the Manhattan Project was ultimately infiltrated. There were spies. There was intelligence gathering that came out of it. On the other hand, by and large, it was massively secret. The success of the Manhattan Project is not fully wedded to its secrecy, but certainly part of it. The Manhattan Project in the 1940s is trying to develop the science and logistics to create a deployable weapon. And this is supposed to be a super weapon, but no one is exactly sure what it is going to look like. It is just going to exist at this point. And then there is the idea of perhaps testing this weapon. And that is pretty scary stuff. Nevertheless, a few things are very important as to how this will progress. One of them is the death of franklin roosevelt. Because we know roosevelts ideas about the war and world war ii were very clear, sort of direct. When roosevelt is gone, the new 1945 harryy april truman, he was a very new president. He had only been Vice President for a few short months. He has not been fully briefed, including key components of the Manhattan Project. Keep in mind, he will go ahead and negotiate the end of the Second World War with churchill and stalin and has to know more about what is going on. In fact, when truman comes to power or comes into the office, by this point in 1945, we were getting fairly close to creating a deliverable bomb. And an infusion of scientific knowledge from german scientists brought over very soon after the end of the war in europe in 1945 kind of helps us get to that point whereby july of 1945, the United States believes they are ready to test. Now truman is involved. And truman wants to know because we are fighting a war in the Pacific Theater we talked about Island Hopping the other day. Where there were less and less islands to hop. We were getting closer and closer and closer to the japanese home islands and the action, the fighting, the combat as bad as it ever was in the first place, is getting increasingly worse. And we have the introduction of things like kamikazes. But we believe that the campaign in japan will be the costliest military campaign in history. We were afraid of that reality, but we are preparing for that reality. We have a Planning Commission working on invading japan by the 1945, and by the middle of 1945, truman gets word that that bomb may be ready. In fact in july 1945 he gets a phone call that says essentially the gadget has worked. The bomb that they were going to test was called the gadget. The detonation, the whole project, was called project trinity. The trinity explosion of the gadget or this Nuclear Weapon is successful. On july 16, 1945 in almagordo, new mexico, the United States detonates the bomb. We do not drop it from airplane. We detonate it. A bunch of people watch it. A bunch of people take readings and testings. It is a scientific event for most people. But we now have a bomb and we have a bomb that can be deployed, and we know what this bomb will do. And what the bomb will do will far surpass what most peoples expectations are. We have a Nuclear Weapon. We have a super weapon. And we are at war with japan and we are losing about losing we are worried about losing one million to 1. 5 Million People in an invasion in japan in the next few months. What are we going to do . The decision ultimately rests with president truman. Famously known as the buck stops here. Trumans decision is in hindsight far more wrenching that it was at the time. Not to say the morality of using this kind of weapon on japan would have zero ramifications and zero impact on the decisionmaker or the world, but we couldnt really anticipate necessarily what letting this cat out of the bag would do for the entire planet. Once we drop a Nuclear Weapon on somebody, the world knows what it is, and its reaction will be gauged accordingly. But nobody knows what it is. When truman is asked to make this decision, essentially nobody knows what it is. Nobody can say, like we all can, this is what a Nuclear Weapon is going to do. So, truman has to weigh the factors, and there are those in the military command who say, we can end the war with a bomb, do it tomorrow obviously. Well others are still planning for invasion of the home islands of japan. My history professor in grad plannings on that commission and he said, we were still preparing to go to war when we heard this bomb was dropped. But we had a lot of experience behind this as well. It was not as though the United States said, we do not want to invade japan, that would be too costly. What we had done to get to that point was pretty costly. To go through what a canal and uadacanal and g and palau and 100 amphibious campaigns to get to where we are now, each one increasingly more bloody on both sides. Including civilian casualties. And our experience there is probably sufficient to dictate if we have the opportunity to use a different weapon to try a different path, no matter how staggering perhaps what we were going to do. There were back Channel Communications with the japanese, telling them perhaps you should surrender. Telling them perhaps this is not the path that you should stay on. The japanese are not willing to surrender. Most japanese are not willing to surrender at all. There is a military code that says we fight until we lose, which is until we die. But there are those who suggest maybe now is the time to negotiate. But there is a Sticking Point and that Sticking Point is what will happen to the emperor of japan, emperor. Hirohito. Peror the United States says there is no negotiation. If you agree to surrender, you surrender. There is no response from the japanese. They are not going to give up the emperor. They are not going to give up territory. They are preparing for an invasion. Truman decides to use the new device, the atomic bomb, to end the war. So on august 6, 1945, one single b29 bomber which you can go see up in dollars, the air and space, the smithsonian air and space museum up in dulles. A fairly small looking aircraft call the enola gay. A b29 bomber. For the day, it is huge. For today, actually quite small. Att of unimpressive to look until you realize what it did. The b29 bomber, the enola gay, dropped one single bomb, the little boy, on hiroshima, japan. One single bomb, which in 48 seconds completely annihilates the city of hiroshima and completely changes not only the war, but the world forever. The pilot of the plane, became a bit of a celebrity for dropping the bomb and said the crew was completely unaware. They did not know. It was a bomb run. It went pretty much without a hitch. Things went really good. They would have said good job. There was no real explicit clarity about what had just happened until they started to look, until they felt the shock wave and saw the Mushroom Cloud rise for miles after making a banking turn and getting the hell out of there. And they thought to themselves, what have we done . What they did was they annihilated the city. The completely and totally destroyed hiroshima. You have seen these photographs. We know this. This is generations ago for us, but the impact is still pretty intense if you think about it, because three days later we drop another bomb on japan and never again will a Nuclear Weapon be used in anger. And knock on veneer, it never will. Since that time, those are the only two detonations. Theyet, three days apart, United States drops two Nuclear Weapons on japan and destroys two cities, killing effectively hundreds of thousands. The United States drops the bombs. And hopes for a response. There are mixed evaluations of this response. Some say we should have given the japanese more time to respond. Others are almost absolutely certain the japanese would not cave. Some say that the japanese were not sure what happened. Communications were destroyed. It takes people to go to and say, this is what happened and somehow report back to tokyo. Whatever the case, it is irrelevant today because on august 9, another b29 bomber, this one called the boxcar, drops another atomic weapon a different form of atomic weapon. The fat man is a different kind of bomb. We will talk about these types in a second. , japan. Nagasaki hada and some military value, not much however. Keep in mind, American Bombing in japan has been constant. It has been in sus sent. Cessant. The firebombing of tokyo killed more people than pretty much each of the Nuclear Weapons did and those were conventional firebombs. But the United States had not brought all kinds of devastation on japanese citizens through the bombing campaign, but with a single device, an entire japanese city is wiped out. These weapons we are dropping are atomic bombs. They are fissionbased detonation, which we will talk about in a second. They release exponentially significantly less than the weapons we use today, yet exponentially more than the biggest bomb we would have been able to drop in world war ii. In fact a 2000 bomb dropped by bomb yields 2000 pounds of explosive force. An atomic weapon is going to yield in kilotons of detonated force. What would a kiloton be . 1000 tons. You know metric already . Yes, 1000 times. 13,000 tons of tnt in a single bomb. From atons on nagasaki single bomb. Maybe it is not purely the force of the destruction of the event, but the force that the threat of a single bomb that only we possess is what is most important. It is hard to say. Whatever the case, we know that nagasaki is also destroyed. Thousands and thousands killed in the short term, by blast, by heat, by being vaporized. And many more killed by radiation. In fact, many people would argue there are still being killed to this day. The japanese get the picture. They understand our threat which is we will use these bombs on your cities until you surrender. How many bombs did we have left in reserve to drop on japan at that point . Deployable at that moment in time . Zero. Did not matter. The japanese commit to a full, Unconditional Surrender on the uss missouri with all sorts of nations in attendance and a very formal ceremony, the japanese signed Unconditional Surrender papers in the war is over, but the Nuclear World has just begun. And bizarrely or whatever, it becomes the new war in a sense. Because within the next few months and effectively within the next two years, the cold war is deeply underway and in that confrontation with the soviet union that will last until 1990, 1991, for the first several years of that war, the United States has a Nuclear Weapon and the soviet union does not. What does this weapon do . Well, it blows up. Massive amounts of force. But there was a test and there were small tests beforehand. There was a clear understanding of what the bomb would do in theory and in practice, we realized its potential in a sense. The bomb is designed to emit massive amounts of last force force. The bomb is designed where heat pushes that force. A fireball, if you will, pushed by force, and it is going to emit a whole lot of radiation by this point in 1945 we know is deadly. We know in our testing, in our lab work in new mexico, we know that massive release of radiation will kill a human being, and some of our people are killed. Yes . [indiscernible] why didnt we use the atomic bomb on tokyo . Because then who would surrender . Some will argue the reason we selected the cities was not simply for the demonstration effect we can bomb any city. There is no safe place. Which some would argue is terroristic. But we wanted to see what the bomb would do to a target that was relatively untouched. This is not uncommon. We want to see what the weapon does in practice. But also you make a demonstration effect.