It was published last year, she has published other books on the history of science. You might have noticed that a number of the panelist today dont have academic training in history, or have not been academic historians or their entire careers. Im quite certain that angela is the only one in our panel who has a phd in biochemistry. She actually worked as a scientist and a graduate student with radioisotopes of berkeley before she decided she wanted to be a historian. She is now a professor of history at princeton university. She is also the incumbent president s of the history of science societies. She has done pretty well for a biochemist. [laughter] creager. [applause] i would like to give my warm thanks to the key west harry s. Truman foundation, for bringing me here. I am enjoying the sunshine, and the sea, as well as these marvelous panels. Where thisn with morning sessions left off. The Nuclear Detonations at hiroshima and not a socket world war ii by demonstrating a devastating power of the atom that. Turned toovernment publicizing the peacetime dividends of nuclear mileage knowledge. Pioneering usage of isotopes in medicine and science have actually proceeded the atomic age by two decades. Of radioisotopes remains smallscale, until the development of Nuclear Reactions for the bomb project in the 1940s. Before the war ended, leaders of the secret Manhattan Project proposed to convert the large senior into aor production site after the war for radioisotopes for outside users. Commissionenergy then inherited this plan, overseeing a program of preparation and distribution as the means to promote the peaceful use of the atom. Those who are trained or member what the radioisotope is, this is illustrated with a simple element of hydrogen. Here we have normal hydrogen, which is just one proton. Isotopes are various developments which have usually extra neutrons. There you see, if you add an extra neutron to hydrogen, it is still hydrogen, chemically. But it has a heavier mass. This is a stabilizer taupe. It remains like that. Youou add one more neutron, get the unstabilized tro here isotrope. It decays and gives off radiation. That is how they are detected when they are used. There are a number of radio isotropes that are useful in biological research. I have listed some of the most common regular elements. The number of neutrons that are in them with the variation is if they are stable, and what it is if they are radioactive. The thing that is striking is they are very different from one another. To give off different kinds of radiation as they decay. The halflife, the time during which half of the radioisotope will decay, very different. For this midst well beers, or carbon14, its 5730 years. For sodium, its 15 hours. The truman years, radioisotopes became political elements, instruments in the struggle over the control of the adamant. Of the atom. See el lawrence, who invented the first cyclotron. This is next to one of the larger cycle sounds cyclotrons. These were producing radioisotopes. The government got involved on a much larger scale. Governmented, as the began to supply radio i stroked with the Manhattan Project radioissotopes otropes. Particular, there were concerns about sending radioisotopes to foreign researchers. It resulted in an embargo of american produced review isotopes that lasted about a year. It reverberated through congress. Tion resulted in their politicization. Of 1946ic energy act was aimed at protecting or at least for tom prolonging the American Nuclear monopoly. It prohibited the export of fissionable materials. It charged the new civilian agency with developing the benefits of Atomic Energy for civilians, including distributing byproduct materials. There were references in the initial announcement to national distribution. A general need that domestic need to be filled first. The situation was more dire than that for people who lived outside United States border. It was and that they were at the back of the line, they couldnt get them at all. One in this country knows if any regulations against sending isotopes to foreign users, the conviction is widespread abroad that scientists in this country are unwilling to share their material. The first2, 1946, shipment was made. It was a personal shipment, handdelivered, from the physicist who was the director of Oak Ridge National laboratory, to a cancer researcher from st. Louis. It wasnt that he happened to be in oak ridge that day, picked up his military of carbon14, it was a photo opportunity to launch the whole program. You can see all the journalist and newspaper men crowded around the shipment. It was being stage right in front of the reactor. Shipments that had been pending all summer began being sent out, even as the confirmation hearings for the commissioners for the new agency resurfaced contentious political debates over Atomic Energy. But not all orders were being shipped by the Manhattan Project. By 1947, oak ridge had 73 unfilled for and request for radioisotopes from medical research and therapy. And were from england, carnival europe, including researchers in belgium, spain, and sweden. This is a picture of the first commissioner. They had an unusual organization, headed by this commission of five individuals, all of whom voted. There was a chair, but it was more of a spokesperson that i had. Head. There was only one scientist, and then william way back there were early commissioners. They had more pressing political problems. Particularly responding to allegations of Mission Files and misplaced fissionable materials. Werebritons additives unhappy that the agency was a civilian agency at all. They had lobbied for a military agency. , and theye watchdogs were especially critical of the commissioner, former head of the Tennessee Valley authority. His role in the new deal tainted him for many congressmen. The general Advisory Committee strongly advocated that the aec begin to export radioisotopes. It was made up of scientists, all physicists, headed by oppenheimer. They argued that releasing isotopes would have important political benefits. You can see from their document, i think oppenheimer had a heavyhanded drafting this. Thus proved that this democratic country will do all he can, consistent with its own defense and security, to improve the Public Welfare and raise the standard of living throughout the world. Despite the strong recommendation, the commissioners could not reach him unanimity. Opposedose they expanding the program be on the u. S. He felt like the safeguards were not sufficient to prevent radioisotopes to advance delivery operations in other nations. These review isotopes could not be used to build obama. Could notadioisotopes be used to build a bomb. He recognized that like other aspects of Atomic Energy policy, the issue of radioisotope distribution revealed contradictions in u. S. Foreignpolicy. The aim of slowing Russian Development of the bomb was interfering with aiding and assisting the rest of europe. This is what was called the Marshall Plan. He felt that the United States should use it scientific resources to reinforce strong alliances with european friends. It should be noted that many of these friends were people who actually developed Nuclear Science in the first place in europe, individuals like meals or. Many were located in other countries. Radioisotope might be used to gain information about the Nuclear Programs of other countries. Both ring security through intelligence. His is because any laboratory that this is because any laboratory that received radioisotopes would be open to having it reviewed. It would be useful to the United States to know that certain foreigners were busy with no more mischievous work then radioisotope research. Am i suggesting corey and the possibility that these men are employed against the interest of the United States. He came to view the distribution of radioisotopes to foreign scientist is part of a larger pattern of exchange that would benefit u. S. Interests. Three of the other commissioners agreed with him. He by contrast remain convinced that sending review isotopes abroad created a National Security risk. When the Commission Program voted, a past four to one. At the beginning of the Fourth Annual or National CancerResearch Congress in st. Louis, on september 3, 1947, president truman announced that the radioisotopes would be available to foreign scientists. Science to carry over into other problems of world concern. Out 356 shipments of radioisotopes to laboratories in treatment centers. You can see the iron curtain was an iron curtain also for the dissolution of radioisotopes distribution of radioisotopes. Sweden was actually the largest consumer, followed by england. Beyond australia and new zealand, the other noneuropean countries included argentina, chile, rew, and south africa. 90 of these shipments were being used in the field of medical therapy. Was Even Stronger in the foreign shipment program. It was important politically to allay fears that radioisotopes might be being used in military research. The assumption tended to be the physics and engineering might be used for military things. Ill it in medicine were more humanitarian in their orientation. Aec was at pains to emphasize the new isotope escorts exports didnt endanger National Security. Their credibility weekend by allegations including new charges of security lapses and objection to the screening of actions members for their political allegiances. In the spring of rising 49, ourher Security Breach gon was missing, ar missing. An inquiry was launched. Before hearings began, concerns about the radio Isotope Program began to surface in the press. A Senate Appropriations a senatoree meeting, from wyoming drew attention to the fact that lewis deviated from the process. The agency also approved an application from finland, which was considered even more problematic because they had a mutual defense fund with the soviet union. Story can see it, and a in the new york times, the commission was really caught by this. They try to regularize our relationship with finland. The joint committee on Atomic Energy soon picked up the alarm about isotopes in their investigation. Acs ramr charged the clearly violates the intentions of the radioisotopes program. More specifically, the initial policy was to try to further medicine and biology in foreign countries, particularly a shipment of radioactive iron that had been sent that april to highorwegian resents temperature steel. Because this might possibly have an application to jet engines. Hickenlooper, these violated the Atomic Energy act. It is interesting that the critics often conflated information and materials when talking about what should be allowed by the law. This accusation was reported in newspapers the next day under bylines such as the program also had a strong defender. Including brian mcmahon, who was the person who helped to author the initial Atomic Energy act. A newly appointed commissioner and physicist of the governments Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer testified on june 13 as head of the general Advisory Committee. He defended the radioisotope export decisions. Congressman asked him whether the radioisotopes being sent to europe might find their way to russia. I couldnt resist including what was probably the most famous quote from this hearing when oppenheimer talks back to hickenlooper and says no one can force me to say that you cannot use these isotopes for Atomic Energy. That is not true of all isotopes. Tony am is a good one. Big one. Ium is a these exports are as innocuous as a shovel or bottle of beer when it comes to making an atomic bomb. But of course, this response was seen as very arrogant and didnt help the case at the aec. Three months later, the announcement of the russians had detonated their first atomic bomb, reinforced suspicions that american scientist mightve given away their country secrets. These hearings exacted a toll on the agency. The export program for radioisotopes was not discontinued. The chair resigned. Actually expanded their export program in 1951 to include industrial uses, not just medical and scientific uses. Was byson they did this this time, the british and canadian Atomic Energy agencys were beginning to produce and sell their own radioisotopes to foreigners. Their policies were less restrictive than those of the u. S. Lose the market share in radioisotopes, the u. S. Expanded its program. In 1951, the press release stressed that these were not National Security risks. There is nothing secret or evil about radioisotopes in the forms in which they are sold in this country and abroad. As of today, isotope constitute the single most contribution of Atomic Energy to peacetime welfare. This is in part by the ,evelopment of Nuclear Power thinking the aec would be an atomic tba. By this time, france had its own experiment reactors. The u. S. Had evidence of a reactor operator russia and several other countries. The window of opportunity for the u. S. To show itself generous with its radioactive resources is closing. Recognize theec operation of reactors and several other countries might lead American Researchers to request them permission to import foreign isotopes. Later,end, a few years the Political Association that conservatives had crafted between the foreign distribution of isotopes and lacks National Security was finally severed by a republican president. Had a coreisenhower proposal to the u. S. Contribute visual materials to a program aimed at peaceful Atomic Energy. The country she did not materialize. But the program to take shape. It highlighted civilian benefits, which the radioisotope Solution Program had implement ties in the beginning. Eisenhowers program, and the broad overhaul of the Atomic Energy act in 1946, shifted in from guarding secrets and materials to sharing technology. Until this new political environment, radioisotopes had been viewed with suspicion by conservative americans. In the early postwar years, i suggested allergy, agriculture, and medicine represented these civilian or peaceful side of the agency to the public. Sending ofing the isotopes was politically thatable in the ways foreign use was not. He toured the same political meaning that the domestic shipment did. The message that adams could cure as well as killed. That is the part of trumans legacy of Atomic Energy that i want to highlight for todays panel. If you are more interested in this, and in the myriad ways in which radioisotopes from the government were used in the postwar. , you might look up my book. , you the postwar period might look up my book. Our next speaker is the author of a book called atomic age america, which was published last year. It is a survey of the history of Nuclear Energy that covers Nuclear Energy from the beginning to fukushima. He has published more books than i can name it. If were going to have lunch today, more books than most of us can count. Not only in the field of Nuclear Energy, but also in environmental history, urban history, history of technology, and a wide variety of fields in which he is published really important books. It is a great pleasure to have with us today marty melissa. Thank you. I want to thank the organizers. It is wonderful to be back in key west. One littleknown relationship that sam and i have, we both came out of graduate school the same year. We competed for the same jobs. Neither one of us got those jobs. [laughter] made sense then, we say how unfortunate it is for those universities that didnt hire us. We have maintained a good strong ego structure through all of this. I do spend a lot of my time writing environmental history, areas ofmy major research. Sam suggested i focus on this topic. I am really glad i did. Looking at the arms race especially through its origins in the Truman Administration, really gave me a sense of the monumental events that grew out of the war. And certainly grew out of the years of the truman presidency. The Nuclear Arms Race really does begin with the Manhattan Project. It leads to the development of the first atomic bomb. There is not competition immediately for the development of the bomb. There is certainly other countries that have stopped and started and started again. Efforts to develop atomic weapons. The bombing in the aftermath redefined the prosecution of war. I think that is important that we move into a time of total war. Total war of a whole new kind. Secondly, it kind of defines vulnerability and security in much different ways. It is extort an early important. The Truman Administration establishes a baseline for what becomes an ongoing arms race betwee