Shaped by the expansion of the american democracy and the cotton economy. Indian nations like the cherokees were victimized by the United States government, the state of georgia as well as land hungry settlers, but the nations willingness to adapt and press all possible advantages illustrates how indians continued well beyond the colonial area to change to make colonialism work in their favor. With that in mind, i want to revisit california today. And consider the ways Californian Indian societies continued the practice after the mission era, and helped to build californias economy, attract settlers, and transform the territory into a economically vital american state during the gold rush. This transformation hinged on the work of indian people. As you remember, catholic missionaries where the vanguard of Spanish Colonial settlement in california. Franciscan missionaries envision the Northern Frontier in which indians would be converted into spanish subjects loyal to the crown and willing to defend spains claim to north america. In their approach, this meant economic conversion. As well as spiritual conversion. On one hand, doing the lords work meant getting the indians to do spanish work, farming, herting skilled trades, Domestic Service and so on. On the other hand, the lords work required money, which was scarce, but sometimes that money could be made in ways that aligned with the spiritual goals of the missions. The high end tallow trade was the backbone of californias economy before the gold rush, indian cowboys to the herd with was the most important work force in the era. The Richard Henry dana was an american sailor aboard the boston based ship the pilgrim. He observed that Mission Santa clara and san jose did in his words, a greater business in hides than any in california. And capable of caring 1000 hides apiece are sent down to the vessel to bring away goods in return. He spent much of his two years in california. From 183436, curing those hides and helping them aboard the ship. He had a healthy appreciation for the Economic Significance of indian labor at the mission. Thousands of pound of hides. Dana in this portrait bears more than a passing resemblance to 1980s heavy metal legend glenn danzig separated at birth . He was one of many contenders for california hides. The Hudson Bay Company began trading out of the San Francisco bay, all produced by indians. These commodities were exchanged for british and american manufactured goods. Especially calico cloth, as you remember from our discussion of the french colonies, it was some major trade item. The Russian American Company established a fort, fort ross on the northern coast in 1812 to produce wheat. To ship to its main fur trade outpost. They failed to produce enough and then the Russian American Company became a buyer of California Mission wheat as well. The pilgrim, the ship, was a company ship. A bryant and state of emergen emergency spur jess ship. The hide trade was the most important official Economic Activity in california, but unofficially the trade in stolen cattle, horses and mules became another source of trade, livestock. Beginning in 1830, new mexico trading parties began to visit california to purchase mules. Part of what was then called the santa fe trail. Historians associate the santa fe trail with the connection between missouri, santa fe, new mexico, but the trail extended on to a lesser extent into california, ending in los angeles. They carry trade goods and ranged throughout the interior of california looking for the best and least expensive livestock. Much on tailbacked through trade with the indians. In 1831, a new mexican Trading Party arrived adMission San Gabriel with wool and blankets. An american for trapper reported that the parties returned to santa fe later that year with many mules in very fine form. To cost of those mules, quote, brought in barter for blankets and caused a sensation in mexico. Mules purchased with blank ends were then resold in santa fe at trade fairs between 6 and 10 a piece. You can see turning blankets into cash would have been immensely valuable. The following year, 1832, santa fe traders returned to california and came back to santa fe with 600 mules and 100 horses, so that was an opportunity too good to pass up. Some animals were purchased through legitimate trade, meaning purchased from the actual owners of the animals. But much of the stock that theen traders bought out of indians was stolen. In february 1833, one priest reported that new mexican traders had made off with 108 mules stolen by indians from mission san miguel. A priest at san gabriel complained that the introduction of articles and commerce into this territory by natives of new mexico has caused extensive robberies, both open and concealed. They sell, they trade, they induce indians to steal to sell. When they required new mexican traders to submit to inspections, before leaving california, the traders tried to elude the authorities. When caught, the extent of their theft was outstanding. In one raid, authorities confiscated 200 stolen animals. In another raid, 430 stolen an molls next month, so pretty big herds of hot livestock. In northern california, the situation was no better. The trade was so lucrative that the british fur trade company Hudson Bay Company bought into the action with independent american fur trappers. So even corporations were involved in purchasing livestock they knew the stock was stolen. In april 18 33, the governor california complained the british and americans on the columbia river, referring to the Hudson Bay Company, makes frequent incursions into the country on the pretext of trapping beaver and other quadrupeds. You have to love to language of the 19th century. Scattering over various regions, they identify themselves with the wild natives, following the same life, live in a wandering fashion and become familiar and gain their confidence. From that has come roapidly one positive evil, namely the influence the net natives have dedicated themselves to the stealing of horses. The natives in question were indian people from the San Joaquin Valley of california, speakers of a language called yokuts, much like the chumashan, that you remember earlier in the semester. Politically independent, but culturally related groups, and each group saw themselves as separate and distinct, but had a common languages. Always plains speakers from independent villages but speaking the same language. These were a mix of wild indians, and indians who had received baptism in the missions. So missionized indians, who never had the benefit of baptism in the missions. Drawing on stock handling skills they had learned in the mission, wrestlers could make off with large herds of Mission Stock and find shelter in Indian Villages in the interior. This is an image of Mission San Gabriel by los angeles. It is washed out because of the lighting, but you could notice there are some indian men here in the photo in the painting, rather, that are dressed pretty elegantly, especially by contrast with the women in the image who are dressed in sort of like spanish peasant garb. Theyre dressed really, really nicely. That kind of shows you the value missionaries placed on the work these cowboys did. They were allowed to ride horses, which was generally forbidden to indians, and they dressed pretty nice. They were not dressed in the garb of peasants, which is what the priests always hoped the indian converts could be. A common technique used in Livestock Theft was for raiders or thieves to approach the mission in the middle of the night and open the gates of the horse corral. They have a good sense of the lay of the land. They would wait patiently, sometimes for hours for the horses to wander out of the corral slowly of their own will. Once the herd had left the corral and hopefully ideally wanders a good half mile or so away, the wrestlers would drive the animals at full gallop until dawn, then find a secluded spot to hide out and rest the horses. Once night fell again, continue to drive to the destination. However long it took. When horses that tried to break from the herd, the wrestlers brought them back in line using a native technique. They would fire their arrows, but tied to sticks around the arrowhead so when they fired it would just stick them a little bit, enough to hurt, but not do any damage. To this valuable livestock. One observer of the technique noted, quote, the horse immediately takes his place again in the band, and its seldom the indians are required to punish one unruly horse twice for that offense. This is bad if you have from the perspective of the missionaries, but wrestling often went handinhand with running away. In june 1819, a priest reported that one village in Central California harbored 60 stolen horses from Mission San Juan batista as well as quote numerous christian fugitives, friends and neighbors. This is a map that shows the locations of the missions. You have san gabriel down by los angeles. San Juan Baptista is further up in northern california. The priests asked the governor of california for 12 soldiers to send to the field to attack the village and retrieve both the horses and fugitives that had run away from the mission. The governor granted his request. Livestock theft was a serious enough problem. The priest reported back months later that the expedition had succeeded in rescuing 49 of the 60 horse, but, in the priest words, not a soul was brought back to the mission. When one considers the skill and courage of the horse thieves, its not surprising the missioners met with such limited success. I love this image. This is an image that was taken recorded in 1856 by some surveyors that were involved in survey for the railroad track. It would ultimately become the transcontinental railroad. This one entitled plane between the san joaquin and kings rivers, the interior of california. In 1856, one of the most notable things about the plain between the plain and the river was the presence of these stock russellers. One of reasons i love this image so much is that it happens after the gold rush. So after california becomes a state, after gold mining becomes its major reason for existence, indian stock rasling is still at large part of the Central Valley economy, the trade persists. The other thing i like is that in california there is a stereotype that Californian Indians were very docile, easily defeated, very peaceful and noncno noncombative. California indians dont have the same kind of public image as say, a lakota warrior on horse back, so theyre not as, bad ass in the popular imagination as the plains indians. I love this image because that guy is pretty fierce. He has some feathers going on. He looks like he could do some damage to your horse herd or to you if you try to get in his way. So i like that even, you know, well into the gold rush years, people still acknowledges that these mounted livestock rassellers were bad. The gold rush era these mounted livestock wrestlers in the Central Valley were kind of bad, bad, bad. Stock wrestling also offered indians opportunities to thrive in the interior. An english visitor estimated to see 3,000 wild horses in two days of travel in 1840. A minor on the eve of the gold rush claim that in the Central Valley, the Central Valley contained a larger portion of wild horses than any other part of the world to the same extent. On the san joaquin river, bands from 200 to 2,000. So eenormous herds. These herds in addition to providing a lucrative source of trade also provided a basis of subsistence for the indians living on the interior. They were an abundant food source. Probably not trading those wild horses, but you can rely on them by eating them. One newspaper reported in 1847 that from the north to the source of the San Juan River in the south that indians had become in their words so habituated to living on horse flesh, that it is the principal means of subsistence. Acorns and salmon fishing have been the mainstay of the diet and now be the 1840s, we see in the San Joaquin Valley and interior part of california that horsemeat becomes a new staple. Livestock raiding went hand in hand with the fur trade. The many complaints made by california authorities about the Hudson Bay Company indicates the english fur trade company and the russian fur trade company engaged in fur trade within california and other countries. It is not surprising that California Missionaries put Mission Indians to work at this lucrative pursuit as well. I have river map to give you a sense of the extent of the Central Valley. This is the headwaters of the san joaquin river, the southernmost extent of the horse eating. Then the other river is here. This is the northernmost extent. Of the horse eating. The green central part of california is the great Central Valley of california where this livestock trading, horse eating, and ultimately fur trading is going to be taking place. The Sacramento San Joaquin Delta region was the finest trapping ground in california. Californias beaver population has not quite recovered from this era, but the Sacramento San Joaquin Delta is sort of this triangle of land right there. Kind of bracketed in by the san joaquin and Sacramento Rivers. It abounded with beaver at the time and a type of river otter, back then known at land otter to distinguish it from sea otters, which were, sadly, like the primary aim of the russian american, Hudson Bay Fur trade. Do you guys know about sea otters . It has like 1 million hairs per square inch. California sea otters are amazing. They have one million hairs per square inch, so you can imagine what kind of ferc could we get that could sell for a lot of money, the for of an animal that has one million hairs per square inch will be worth a lot, right . Going after beaver and land otter is not the hot how Economic Activity of sea otters. But as the population plummeted, these big for trading firms began to turn their attention to the not quite has awesome critters, the california beaver not great as the sea otters. The people of the san Joaquin Sacramento delta ironically had no native technologies for fur trapping. You might have garnered from my m many comments about california over the semester, california has got really nice weather. In the Sacramento San Joaquin Delta region, youre talking about a change in temperature from winter to summer of like 40 degrees maybe. Its freezing and in the 50s in the winter, but boiling hot in the summer. But in that narrow window, you dont have to need for a lot of clothes. So california indians in all seasons, largely went pretty naked, because you didnt have to bundle up. So theres no need to hunt beaver, no need to worry about catching a animal that has tons of hairs per square inch because the winter is awesome in california. Even in Southern California where it gets into the 50s. Youre talking 60s minimum in the wintertimement so they have no native tech new orleans for dealing with fur bearing animals. Sometimes they hunted beaver for food. Evidently beaver tail is a delicacy mainly in canada, but nothing for dressing furs, to when they trapped which they certainly began doing by the 1820s under authority of the spannic missions they did so to obtain trade goods. Its their only reason for trapping. They wouldnt have done it otherwise. The spanish missionaries didnt appreciate the efforts to induce indians to steal livestock, but they were not above paying trade goods themselves to get indians to trap for them. So like, oh, these new mexican traders theyre ripping us off, scamming them by paying them in beads and. But its indians. Heres some cloth and beads. You want to go out and trap . So theyre not really walking the walk. The Hudson Bay Company as well got into this action. They sent yearlying brigades into california. The chief brigade leader reported to his boss in 1828, quote, beaver has become an article of trapping on the both at the mission of st. Joseph, meaning san jose. 1,500 beaver pelts for captured and sold. So much like livestock, we are going pay the indian the trinkets and we are going bring us back something we trade for cash, which in the roe note area would have been a boon to any trader. He affirms that the source for the skins was explaining our people, while trapping at the rivers met several indians attached to the missions employed hunting beaver. They barter for red and white beads and wearing apparel. By 1837, a british sea captain sailed his ship up the river and noted the beaver trade by the indians had been so successful with a little bit of help from drought, which happens regularly in california to lead the Sacramento River and all of its tributaries devoid of water. All the decent beaver and otter had been trapped out. This captain encountered indians on the sacramento below the American River with passes literally the mission woet them passes saying they have our permission to be out here trapping. And they ha