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Treaty of Versailles - Treaty of Versailles - German reparations and military limitations: The war guilt clause of the treaty deemed Germany the aggressor in the war and consequently made Germany responsible for making reparations to the Allied nations in payment for the losses and damage they had sustained in the war. It was impossible to compute the exact sum to be paid as reparations for the damage caused by the Germans, especially in France and Belgium, at the time the treaty was being drafted, but a commission that assessed the losses incurred by the civilian population set an amount of $...

  There exists a photograph of this writer standing before a giant “71” mounted outside the Botanic Gardens in Belfast. I am very small. But even if I were larger, the towering red digits would suggest totalitarian confidence of a Riefenstahlian stripe. That wasn’t quite how it was. I had been brought to the now largely forgotten exposition celebrating – or commemorating, or perhaps merely acknowledging – the 50th anniversary of Northern Ireland. I remember having a nice time. I also remember not really understanding what it was all about. It is difficult to mark the...

It is clear that the modern European Union is much larger than the ECSC in its scale and depth of integration. Under the auspices of the EU, there is a single currency and the Schengen area, and now there is also a special vaccine policy. However, the first steps were associated with coal and steel 70 years ago, when Germany went from being a defeated enemy to being a key US ally in the Cold War, writes Valdai Club Programme Director Oleg Barabanov.