Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln, Dirk Krueger, Alexander Ludwig, Irina Popova As a consequence of the Covid-19 pandemic, virtually all public schools in the US closed their doors for in-person instruction for at least some period of time in spring 2020, and many remained closed in the 2020-21 school year. Whether schools are open for in-person (versus remote or hybrid) instruction has been a contentious policy issue. Indeed, the ability of students to attend school in person has become a political flashpoint in both Europe and the US. In the US, President Biden has committed to having the majority of K-8 public schools open for in-person instruction by the end of his first 100 days in office (Chalfant 2021).